Samudera Darussalam

Samudera, officially the Crowned Federation of Samudera, the Abode of Peace, (Samuderan: ꦦꦺꦂꦱꦺꦏꦸꦠꦸꦮꦤ꧀​ꦣꦶꦫꦗ​ꦯꦩꦸꦢꦺꦫ​ꦣꦫꦸꦱ꧀ꦱꦭꦩ꧀, Persekutuan Diraja Samudera Darussalam), is a federal, sovereign country located in Mandalanusa, formerly known as Melayu Archipelago. It is situated mainly on the Samuderan peninsula, although it also possess significant overseas territories, such as Labuan and Cempaka. The country has an estimated population of 27 millions, mainly concentrated in urban areas (as of 2019).

The concept of a Samuderan nation-state doesn't appear until around the 9th century after the collapse of the Meilawati empire that controlled much of the peninsula. At the conclusion of the Great Northern Wars, a loose confederation was formed by the Samuderan states of the north through the Pact of Indrapura at 1211, which formed a basis of the unified state of Samudera. Throughout the 15th and 16th century the country grew to encompass much of its current territories, notably by the adoption of the Treaty of Union in January 1545 that unifies the mainland kingdoms of Samudranagara and Gadang. Samudera entered a period of self-isolation during the Three Brothers' Era, which was ended in 1760 due to pressure from Intermarean merchants to open to the West. After more than a decade of internal conflict in the court, Samudera was left severely weakened and accepted Terranean protection at the 19th century, which lasted until March 1 1960. Eversince its independence, the country has long maintained its neutrality, although as of recently it started to play a more active role in international politics.

Following the Revolution of 1928 and the revision of its constitution, Samudera Darussalam is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as its head of state and a mangkubumi as its head of government. The city of Palembang holds the status as the country's nominal capital and is the location where most of the royal family resides, while the national government is based in the city of Bandar Raja. Samudera exercises a hegemonic influence in its realm, devolving powers to handle internal affairs to its component states.

Samudera is a highly developed country with an advanced, high-income economy. Social and labour-market reforms in the 20th century provide the basis of the present state welfare system which is comparable to the Nordic model, with universal health care and education available for all of its citizens. The country relies exclusively on renewable energies and has been utilizing and researching green technology since the late 20th century to reduce its emissions. It maintains large swathes of forested areas within its territories, which are protected with various strict environmental laws.

Etymology
The first known documented use of the name Samudera dates back to 1337 in which, according to the local literature Tales of Palembang, the lord of Palembang Sri Jayanegara first declared the founding of the "Kingdom of Samudranagara" from the ashes of the Eternal League of States.

Most linguistic experts believe that the name Samudera is derived from word समुद्र (samudra) which means ocean in Vedic and Sangamese. Although it has yet to be proved scientifically, the theory aligns with a local folklore that claims the ancestors of Samuderans as coming from the sea. In the country's full name, Persekutuan Diraja Samudera Darussalam, "darussalam" (Arabic: دار السلام‎) means "abode of peace", while "persekutuan diraja" means "the crowned federation" in Malay.

The adjective "Samuderan" is commonly used to refer to matters related to Samudera Darussalam. The term has no definite legal connotation, but is used in law to refer to the citizenship of Samudera Darussalam and matters to do with nationality. However, the term is also used as an ethnic and regional identity by people who hailed from the component state of Samudranagara, and thus may cause confusion. The official designation for a citizen of Samudera Darussalam is "Samuderan citizen".

Early history


Settlement by anatomically modern humans in what was to become Samudera occured in waves beginning by about 40,000 years ago. The last and largest of these were the Lanyarans, who form the majority of modern population. Favourable geographical conditions led to the development of several prehistoric civilizations in the peninsula, such as the Ambang city-states.

Meilawatian conquest in 3 CE started the written history of the region. The 800-year Meilawatian rule left a lasting legacy to the area, with the locals adopted Indianized Meilawatian culture and religions. A combination of outside threats and devastating civil wars led to the demise of the empire, which was quickly followed by the disintegration of its territories. Invasion by Samuderan settlers to the area not long after confined the remnants of the former Meilawatian nobles to the southwestern part of the peninsula, which led to the creation of the Kingdom of Gadang in the 11th century. Claiming the legacy of the fallen empire, Gadang's attempts to reconquer the rest of the region were barely successful and it remained as the sole stable nation in the peninsula for the next 2 centuries.



The formation of a unified Samuderan nation began with the outbreak of the Great Northern Wars at the start of the 13th century. Taking advantage of the chaos in the north, the datus of Gadang staged an invasion of the border states, making another attempt to bring the Central Valley communities under their rule. As a consequence, conflict broke out between Gadang and its neighbouring states to the north who tried to defend their independence. Following the Sack of Yhu in 1202, a massive coalition of opposing forces were then formed by the nations of Central Valley to fight off the invasion, finally resulting in the successful Battle of Bayang in 1211 where the Gadangese suffered a decisive defeat.

A combination of the devastation caused by the Great Northern Wars, disputes, and fear of another invasion led to a series of conventions between the Samuderan states for some time after the armistice with Gadang was signed off. In an unanimous decision, memorized in folklores and the document "Tales of Palembang", the states agreed to form a more lasting alliance to replace the older military coalition in order to promote peace and order throughout the region. With the ratification of the Pact of Indrapura by several Samuderan states in 1211, ' 'the Eternal League of States" finally came into being; among its initial members are the states of Ganen, Yhu, and Bayang. However, despite being members of the same coalition, Palembang and Ayer didn't immediately join the League until only later at the end of 1211 due to internal feuds among its ruling clans.

With most of the northern nations much or less are united under one banner, the situation began to stabilize in the Central Valley region. As a result, commerce began to grow both inwardly and outwardly, bringing prosperity to the formerly war-torn lands. Fuelled by the new riches, the League grew to absorb its surrounding territories either by peaceful means or military force: the Treaty of Sebak saw the inclusion of Pekan and Batang in 1265, while Dharmawangsa was conquered in 1283. As a result, by the early 14th century, the League has already controlled a substantial amount of territories in the northern and central part of the peninsula, elevating it to a major regional power along with Gadang to the south.



Throughout the last 13th to the early 14th century, a distinct Samuderan indigenous culture began to emerge in territories ruled by the League. During this time, the Samuderan alphabet was first developed as the primary means of writing, replacing the earlier pali script used in the Melawati era. Its introduction in the 1300s contributed to the spread of literacy in the region and helped promoting the use of the Samuderan Malay dialect as a "lingua franca", as it was the main language used by the script to write in.

The nation was eventually ravaged by internal feud amongst the leading clans of the member states. During this time, the lack of unity within the Eternal League costed them the border regions of Muara and Indralama, lost to Gadang during the 1325 Battle of Muara. As tensions mounted, the League succumbed to a series of civil wars in the 14th century, once again fragmenting the northern part of the peninsula into several warring factions. This period of confusion in the north was known as the "Warring States era".

It was during this time, according to Samuderan official history, that Islam was introduced to the region by Muslim merchants, though historical practices and accounts of the Samuderan magical communities suggest that the knowledge of the Abrahamic religion was known since at least 2 centuries earlier, possibly through interaction with the local Middle Eastern magical communities. Nevertheless, it was not until the conversion of the Gadangese monarch Aryawarman in 1330 that Islam began to be widely embraced by the populace, at least in the south. To the north of the borders, the spread of Islam was hindered by the resistance of the Bethinan priests who wield large influence over the feuding states of the former League.

The end of the Warring States era could be attributed to the successful Palembang wars of conquest in the latter part of the 1330s, which saw the annexation of the other states and the establishment of the Kingdom of Samudranagara under the leadership of the former lord of Palembang, Sri Jayanegara. His attempts at consolidation of power were opposed by the once powerful Bethinan priests, culminating in a series of insurrections in 1338 that nearly tore the new nation apart. With the support of Gadang, the Samudranagaran monarch and his troops managed to defeat the clerics and their supporters in the Battle of Indrapura, ultimately ending the power struggle in royal favour. While the lost of power and influence of the priests as a result of the defeat greatly helped the spread of Islam in the peninsula, the subsequent backlash suffered by the losing side in the aftermath would then prompted many to migrate to the southern island of Cempaka, setting up another state that is independent from the mainland.



The start of the 15th century was characterized by a period of intense development in the Samuderan states, though what would be considered as important achievements of the Samuderan nation-building by experts happened in the two mainland kingdoms of Gadang and Samudranagara. Governmental reforms done by Baginda Arifin of Gadang provided the circumstances that led to the codification of law in the southern part of the peninsula, producing what is now known as "Kanun Gadang". Influenced by both Islamic principles and local customary laws, the kanun was the first written constitution in the region, serving as the basis for the development of similar laws in the other Samuderan states in the later era. Meanwhile in the north, Samudranagara expanded to include lands south of the Pasak River, while its people started colonizing the Island of Saka to the east. However it's in 1415 CE that a fundamental change occured for the nations of the peninsula, shifting it from the waning influence of the old gods, as reported by local sources. The Samuderan royal family's conversion to Islam, encouraged by the reigning monarch Wikara Warman who have previously accepted the religion, brought radical changes to the government and society in the north, as Islam becoming more widespread thanks to the official patronage now provided to the faith. By 1430, it is estimated that most of Samuderan population are already Muslims, following the path of their rulers.

Treaty of Union
The seeds for political union between the kingdoms of Gadang and Samudranagara were first planted near the end of 15th century by the marriage of Prince Mansur of Samudranagara to Princess Badiah of Gadang, as an attempt to end the intermittent warfare between the two kingdoms that have been waged over the previous 145 years earlier. However, the peace was broken when a rogue faction of the Gadangese royal family seized power in 1490 and commanded an invasion to try to wrestle away the Muara region that have been taken over by Samudranagara in their previous war. The resulting Third Battle of Muara costed both nations great losses, including the demise of the reigning monarch of Gadang and many of his supporters. With the previously deposed faction managed to get back in power, Gadang formally ending the war with its northern neighbour, albeit with several territorial exchanges.

The death of King Ahmad Syah of Samudranagara without issue at April 1540 caused a political crisis in the royal court of Palembang. Left with no other choice, the nobilities of the kingdom turned towards his cousin-twice-removed, Iskandar of Gadang, to inherit the throne of Samudranagara as the last living male descendant of the Jayanegaran Dynasty. Subsequently in 1540, he assumed the throne of Samudranagara as King Iskandar I, joining the two nations under a personal union.

The new monarch's ascension to the throne transformed the peninsula into a single entity perhaps for the first time since the fall of Meilawati. Iskandar I not only recognized this, but seeing that unification might be the only way to bring an everlasting peace to the region, have been encouraging a deeper integration of the kingdoms into a real unified state. His attempts were opposed in both realms, particularly by the nobilities of Gadang, who feared that they are going to be dominated by the larger Samudranagara.

Following years of political squabbles, a compromise between the court and the nobilities was reached at January 1545 in a series of negotiations now known as the "Miracle of Palembang". The compromise between the two parties was then enshrined as part of the Treaty of Union, which itself also serves as the basis for the creation of a unified kingdom and government institutions, such as the Majlis. Acknowledging the different nature of the two realms, the treaty also reserved the right to home rule for both states, although in practice, the Kingdom of Samudranagara would still be under direct jurisdiction of the unified government. With the treaty formally taking effect on January 17th 1545, the Kingdom of Samudera-Gadang was born with its capital in Palembang, though by time the country would be known only by its first name, Samudera.

Growth of a nation
In the end of the 16th century, Samudera flourished as a center of trade for Central Mandalanusa thanks to its geographical location and its trade-supporting policies. Samuderan ships and merchants were enganged in numerous sea voyages in pursuit of trade as far away as the land now known as Indusse, bringing valuable commodities and ideas to the peninsula. This exchange led to an explosion in cultural and learning activities in the kingdom, spurring what historians called "the Samuderan Golden Age".

Under the rule of Queen Safiyatuddin, Samudera began to realize its imperial ambitions at the cost of its neighbours. The Wars of the Two Rivers (1603-1604) saw the annexation of lands north of the country, while trade outposts and colonies began to be set up along its trade routes. One of the first and most important overseas possession of Samudera however, is located in what would be known as the modern State of Labuan and Cempaka to the south.



Before its conquest, the island of Cempaka was ruled by several petty states following the collapse of the Kingdom of Cempaka in the end of the 15th century. Among these states, piracy perhaps became a source of revenue eversince 1590 according to the "Tales of Palembang", with the pirates from the city-state of Mutiara especially having a feared reputation among the sailors bypassing the Panjang Strait. With the intention to safeguard its interest in the vital trade route, Samudera launched a successful invasion to the island in 1608, destroying the last significant resistance of the islanders in the Battle of the Cove. Although the first settlers from the peninsula had been soldiers garrisoned in conquered settlements, influx of civilians came with the attempts of Palembang to strengthen its control over the newly conquered territory. In 1610, a royal decree issued the establishment of colonies in the islands of Labuan and Cempaka, starting a large scale population migration from the mainland. The eventual assimilation process, caused by the intermixing of many of these newcomers with the native population, would later gave birth to the modern Cempakan ethnic and culture identity.

Chaos reigned as the power of the Samuderan monarchs subsided near the middle of the 16th century, after large insurrections broke out throughout the kingdom, spurred by disputes over noble rights. In the midst of the infighting, a faction managed to rose to power, gaining influence in the Samuderan court. The Talang family was originally one of the old nobilities that commanded over sugar plantations in the colonies, but then got involved in the power struggle for control over the country. Led by the oldest son Ismail, they managed to ascend to power in 1650, effectively controlling the kingdom as mangkubumis and replacing the Royal Family as the de facto ruler of the nation. Because of that, this stage of history would then be known as the "Three Brothers' Era", named for the three sons from the Talang family that governed the country during this time.

The "Three Brothers' Era" was characterized as a period of consolidation of power by the central government following years of weak authority. Under the Talangs, Samudera began to embark on a path of centralization, first by depriving the traditionally autonomous nobles from their power by enacting the "Laws for the Noble Houses" in 1658, and then monopolizing the trade through the isolationist "sea-ban" policy that lasted for 90 years, culminating in more than a century of firm political unity. While initially it proved disastrous towards the economy, the resulting stable atmosphere provided the government opportunity to pursue various reforms, from the standarization of Samuderan alphabet used throughout the realm in 1663 to agricultural and tax reforms in 1675, that would helped jump-start the Samuderan proto-industrial revolution.

Despite the isolationist nature of the state, limited contact with the outside world is maintained through the only open ports of Melaka and Ujong, from which the study of Western and Eastern sciences continued. The "Three Brothers' Era" period also gave rise to pembelajaran negara ("national studies"), the study of Samudera by the Samuderans. While it's not exactly remarkable, the latter development would allow, among other things, the compilation of the historical document "Tales of Palembang", a prized local source of Samuderan history.

Modern era
Initially uninterested, rumours of potential lucrative trade opportunities coupling with the desire to rehabilitate its name following the 1740 Batavia massacre has prompted the VOC to explore the islands of Mandalanusa. at diplomacy were rejected by the Samuderans, until in 1760 four armed Dutch ships under the leadership of Captain Willem Janssen arrived and forced the opening of Samudera to the outside world. Intimidated at the prospect of invasion by a more advanced opponent, the Mangkubumi government signed the Treaty of Melaka.

The forced opening of the country shook the country to its core, and subsequent similar treaties with other Western nations brought economic and political crises. As efforts to emulate Western technology in an attempt of catching up failed, the mangkubumi resigned and triggering the Peninsular War in 1774. During the course of the war, the remaining Talangs and their supporters were forced to flee to the island of Cempaka, while the mainland came under control of another faction. Failing to acquire help from foreign powers, the Talangs eventually buckled under military invasions from the mainland in the following years, at last reuniting the country. In 1776, a centralized state nominally unified under the monarch was established, and the monarchy was restored to power.



Under the rule of Muzaffar Shah (1770-1796), the government began adopting Western political and military institutions. Students were sent to Busoga and Europe to learn technological expertise, while Samudera acquired Western military technology from playing off rival European powers against one another. In 1781, the cabinet with the help and approval of the newly-organized parliament introduced the new constitution, while state led industrialization policy was implemented in order to even the gap with the Western nations. The modernizing effort led to the emergence of Samudera as one of the strongest native powers in the region, helping it to stand its ground against its opponents in the Lusitanian-Samuderan War (1785-1786).

Succession disputes rocked the government in 1798 following the sudden death of King Badrul Alam without a suitable heir apparent. The internal strife didn't go unnoticed by the European colonial powers, who began to support their own candidates in the dispute in exchange for concessions, including territorial. The victory of the Lusitanian-supported rival faction, and the acquisition of Melaka by the Lusitanians in 1800 as a result was unacceptable to many, however, and led to the formation of a united opposing front who then asked for Terranea to help depose the reigning monarch.

The help didn't come until the outbreak of the revolutionary wars in Europe in the end of the 18th century that began to spill over to areas outside the continent. Terranea, who felt that its position and interest in the area is threatened finally intervened, leading to an eventual victory of the alliance in 1808 and the end of the conflict. The decade-long war however, also left Samuderan economy in ruins, that inevitably led to increasing Terranean influence as its primary backer and the only major power with a foothold in the country. As the country was threatened by European colonial expansion, the government finally signed an agreement with the Terranean Empire (subsequently known as the Terranean-Samuderan Agreement of 1812), making Samudera a Terranean protected state, thus giving Terranea control over its external affairs while guaranteeing Samuderan territorial integrity. Nonetheless the fall of the kingdom into Terranean sphere of influence spurred discontentment among the nobles and intelligentsia, that at last erupted into a rebellion in 1816. With the help of the Terranean, the kingdom managed to suppress the dissent, though with the cost of cementing the bond it had with the European nation.

A revitalization of the Samuderan economy didn't occur until 1824, when cotton was re-introduced in large numbers and plantations made a resurgence. Despite its moderate production, Samudera began to accumulate significant revenue from the trade, enabling it to slowly rebuild, and then expanding its industrial base and infrastructures including the construction of more modern shipyards and roads. In 1850, the lease of the port of Ujong to the Terranean have provided the kingdom with more wealth that are used to develop more institutions to accommodate its growing economy, such as the national bank. As a result, slowly but surely the country's economy began to recover to its prewar level in the 1870s.

The end of the 19th century was marked with a growing regional movement. Centered in the former Kingdom of Gadang, it aimed to give more autonomy to the provinces of Samudera. After long debates in the parliament, a consensus is achieved in which limited regional autonomy is granted. Rising tensions between central and regional governments, however, would become the catalyst to the 1890 constitutional crisis of Gadang, and resulting in the kingdom's revocation of regional autonomy. The movement was then forced to move underground, eventhough it keeps on fuelling dissatisfaction among segments of the population.

World wars and independence


Samudera remains neutral during the course of World War I, and as such is not directly affected. However, the resulting economic stagnation, discontentment towards the government, along with overseas influences such as demands for universal suffrage, labour rights, and sympathy for the Khilafat movement following the abolishment of the Caliphate contributed to the growing dissent that eventually erupted into the Revolution of 1928. Despite promise from the Terranean resident to help suppress the movement, the Samuderan government finally acquiesced to the revolutioners' demands to avoid further conflicts. As a result, the revolution succeeded to achieve its goals, including the establishment of a parliamentary system of government and the revision of the nation's constitution to guarantee fundamental rights.

The outbreak of World War II was initially met with general apathy in Samudera, which is located far enough from the fighting. Nevertheless, the government showed pro-Allied stance and offered asylum for fleeing Milchamian refugees, citing Islamic moral obligation. Subsequent Kandorese invasion of South and Southeast Asia, however, induced the country to support Terranean war efforts due to fear of a possible Kandorese attack as the Terranean base of Port Ubung is located nearby. By the end of the war, the country has contributed both materially and militarily on the Allied side, especially during the Southeast Asian campaigns.

By the end of World War II, Samudera began to retreat from the world stage to focus on its internal affairs. Reforms were done to improve the nation economically and socially, and the development of telephone line and later, television was done to connect the country. Along with the nation's healthcare sector, education saw a lot of investment from the post-war Samuderan government, as they believe it to be a key to the nation's future. This post-war period is widely known as the "Years of Concrete", named so due to the popular perception that the government's policies of the time is the base of the nation's rapid growth in the future.

This era of peace, stability, and development withholds for the most part until the middle of the 20th century, with the consequence that the life standard of the average Samuderan began to rise significantly as a result. Disruptions occur in the form of "the Troubles", an attempted communist revolution that viewed the widening economical gap between the more underdeveloped overseas territories compared to the much more prosperous mainland with distaste. Although the government was quick to put off the rebellion and development in the region was soon hastened, repercussions against the supporters of the movement was also institutionalized due to fear of an attempted communist takeover of the regional government, which was partly also caused by rising international tensions. As a result, the year 1952 began to saw the start of discriminations against members of the Bethinan community, where many of the leading members of the failed communist uprising hailed from.

In the 1950s, rising sentiments for full independence were observed in the kingdom, eventhough the government remained committed to the Terranean-Samuderan Agreement. Growing pressure from the parliament led the current mangkubumi to left for London in order to discuss matters regarding Samuderan full independence in the future. Consequently with help from the Terraneans, works were being done to prepare the nation to take over international responsibilities as an independent nation, something that previously was taken care of by Terranea. On March 1 1960, in front of a crowd in Palembang, King Abdurrahman III announced the independence of Samudera from Terranea and assumed the title of "His Majesty".

As an independent nation, Samudera committed itself to be a neutral country throughout the Cold War and continuing its previous position to focus on domestic issues. Under the so-called "Miracle cabinet", Samudera weathered the economic upheaval during the oil embargoes, and pursued a policy of autarchy in response, though the nation maintains extensive trade with the rest of the world. In 1978, the government abolished the policy of discrimination towards the Bethinan community and apologized for the practice, stating that they are a loyal member of the state.

In the 80s, major changes happen to the governance of the kingdom with the establishment of devolved administrations in Gadang, Samudranagara, and Labuan and Cempaka. Samudera enjoyed explosive economic growth throughout 1970s to the late 1990s, partly driven by the discovery of large gas fields, while at the same time the construction of numerous mega projects including the Inter-Samudera Expressway and the new federal administrative capital at Bandar Raja were completed. Throughout the 1990s, Samudera transformed itself into an extensive welfare state with a diversified economy, while starting from the late 20th century, researches started being conducted into the potential utilization of renewable energy in order to reduce the country's emission that saw the adoption of nuclear energy, among others.

21st century
Samuderan economy made a full recovery in 2002 after it was hit by the fiscal crisis of the late 1990s. One of the consequences is the decrease of the welfare state and increasing privatization of public services and goods such as postal service and telecommunication, that were previously monopolized by the government.

Under the leadership of Samudera's first female mangkubumi Ratna Salim, the country saw greater participation in international affairs, abandoning its previous isolationist stance. It is a founding member of the now defunct-Council of Islamic Cooperation, as well as a member of several international organizations. Nonetheless, the country's foreign minister reiterated Samudera's neutrality in the world stage.

In 2014, the federal government announced that the Kingdom of Samudera had renamed itself as the Crowned Federation of Samudera Darussalam, following a previously-held mass referendum. Samudera officially becomes a secular state in 2018, after the parliament ratified the constitutional amendment to include the clause proclaiming the separation of mosque and state.

Politics


Politics in Samudera operate under a framework laid out in the Constitution of Samudera. Written in 1928 to replace the previous constitution, it establishes a sovereign state in the form of a constitutional monarchy with a representative parliamentary system. While the monarch presides over the Parameswara Council (privy council), its role is strictly representative and ceremonial, such as the appointment and dismissal of the mangkubumi and other government ministers. Hereditary monarch King Iskandar II has been head of state since May 24 1976, following the death of his father King Abdurrahman III.

Government
The Samuderan parliament is called the Majelis. As the legislature of the country, it's one of its most powerful institutions, holding the power to pass federal laws that apply throughout the nation, as well as the power of the purse. The Majelis is also responsible for appointing and exercising control of the government and taking part in international cooperation. Bills may be initiated by the government or members of the parliament, though once they passed, the bills have to be presented before the Parameswara Council to receive royal assent in order to become law.



The bicameral Majelis consists of the lower house, the House of Representatives (Dewan Perwakilan) and the upper house, the State Assembly (Dewan Negara). Members of the House of Representatives are elected directly by popular vote for a maximum term of four years from single-member constituencies, while members of the State Assembly serve for five-year term. 14 members of the State Assembly are elected indirectly by the 3 states legislatures in numbers proportional to their state's share of the national population, while the remaining 46 members are appointed by the monarch at the suggestion of the mangkubumi, including 4 representatives of the federal territories. The Majelis follows a multi-party system and the government is elected through a first-past-the-post system. As Samudera practices universal suffrage, every citizen starting from the age of 18 is eligible to vote, although voting is not mandatory.

Executive power is vested in the Cabinet, led by the mangkubumi, who is also the head of the government. The position of Mangkubumi belongs to the political party that managed to secure the most number of seats in the House of Representatives, where it is usually relegated to the leader of the party. As the de-facto chief executive of the government, the Mangkubumi holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the House of Representatives. In the case where the vote of no confidence is passed in specific form, a general election would be held following the resignation of the ruling government. The office of Mangkubumi is currently held by Kayang Muhammad, who succeeded Nu'man Saloka on 21 June 2020 after the victory of his Samuderan National Party and their coalition partners in the last general election.

Beside its statutory functions, the Mangkubumi also serves as the principal adviser of the monarch on their exercise of royal prerogatives in relation to the government during their term. The Mangkubumi in particular would be giving their own recommendations to the monarch regarding the appointment and dismissal of ministers, and also chairs the Cabinet.

Law and criminal justice
An indigenous Samuderan legal system was first developed in the Kingdom of Gadang in the 15th century, with heavy influence from Islamic and customary laws. With the advent of Islam in another parts of the country, the legal system was soon also adopted throughout the kingdom and remained as one until the 20th century, albeit with modifications. Following the success of the Revolution of 1928, the government began to revamp its judicial system to be modeled after the civil law of European countries, resulting in the formulation of the modern Samuderan Civil Code. Although it underwent several changes throughout the late 20th century, it remained as Samudera's principal civil law and retains much of its original inspirations from the European civil law, especially after Samudera officially declares itself as a secular country in 2018. However, religion and state is not completely separated in Samudera Darussalam, where the state still offers recognition to religious-sanctioned personal laws and collects taxes from religious communities to fund religious services.

Samudera Darussalam applies the principle of the separation of powers in its governance. In line with this principle, judicial power is exercised by independent courts on behalf of the kingdom. According to the constitution and related laws, the court system of Samudera can be classified under the three categories of Judicial courts, Administrative courts, and Military courts. The Supreme Court and Constitutional Court each occupy the highest position in the judicial system, followed by three high courts for member states of the Federation and regional courts. The independence and organisation of the courts, the security of the tenure of judges and public prosecutors, the profession of judges and prosecutors, the supervision of judges and public prosecutors, the military courts and their organisation, and the powers and duties of the high courts are regulated by the Samuderan Constitution.

Law enforcement in Samudera Darussalam is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. These agencies are the paramilitary Federal Border Guard, which is also responsible for coast guard services, and the Samuderan Federal Police (Badan Polisi Persekutuan Samudera Darussalam), which supervises state-level police forces. The Samuderan penal system seeks the rehabilitation of criminals and the protection of the public. As such, the death penalty has been long since abolished for all crimes and prisons are designed to be more humane. The country enjoys a low re-conviction rate at 20%.

In general, the legal and institutional framework in Samudera is characterized by a high degree of transparency, accountability, and integrity, with the perception and occurence of corruption are very low. Samudera has ratified relevant international anti-corruption conventions, and its standards of implementation and enforcement of anti-corruption legislation are considered as very high. However, there are some isolated cases showing that some regional jurisdictions have abused their position in public procurement processes.

Administrative divisions
According to the Constitution, the country is composed of three constituent states (nagara) and several federal territories (semarada). These are divided between two regions, with two states and one federal territory on Samudera proper, and the rest, including Labuan and Cempaka, as part of overseas territories. Home rule governance has been introduced to the states as early as during the unification of Gadang and Samudranagara, though it is not adopted by the latter. Along with the rest of the federal subjects, the state is placed under direct administration of the federal government, which lead to the so called Autonomy Question.



States are typically divided into regions (wilayah), which are then subdivided into municipalities (mukim) and autonomous cities (wenua). Municipalities are also further divided into villages (kampung) that have limited, if few political and public responsibilities, as matters such as health care, schooling, and rescue services are administered by either the state or municipal government. In Gadang as well as Labuan and Cempaka, state governments are led by an elected chief minister (bendara) and legislature, whose members are drawn out from local elections by convention. However, in matters of dire emergency the Majelis may abolish the state government under the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignity, as seen in 1890 constitutional crisis of Gadang.

Foreign Relations
Throughout much of the 20th and early 21st century, Samudera's foreign policy was based on the principle of non-interference and neutrality. In practice, this precarious doctrine means that the country believed that keeping a low profile in international affairs and maintaining peaceful relations with all countries, regardless of their political system, is detrimental to achieve its foreign policies. As such, traditionally the Federation avoided alliances that might entail military or political action and emphasized diplomacy in its dealings with international entities. This strategy has its roots from the early days of Samudera's full independence from Terranea, when positive relation with various competing powers is seen as an important necessity by the government.

Beginning in the early 2000s, the government began to re-evaluate the key principles of the nation's foreign policy. Under the leadership of Ratna Salim, Samudera attempted to play a more active role in international relations as it wanted to refurbish its image to reflect the shift from its formerly staunch isolationist stance. Along with few other nations, it became a founding member of the Council of Islamic Cooperation, while also enganging in negotiations to rejoin the Commonwealth. On the other hand, while the country retains much of its traditional aversion to be involved in the internal affairs of another countries, Samudera began to put considerable participation in international peace efforts, serving as a willing host to refugees as well as committing a considerable budget for foreign aid.

Successive Samuderan governments in the 21st century placed a high priority on the security and stability of Mandalanusa, and as such, strives to further develop relations and cooperation with other countries in the region. Samudera Darussalam is one of the original signatories of the Ladonka Declaration, a precursor to the regional organization Association of Melayu Archipelago Nations in which the country is also a member of.

Samudera is a member of the International Anti-Terror Alliance, as well as an observer in the United Liberation Organization.

Military
The Samuderan Armed Forces (Angkatan Bersenjata Samudera) are a government agency reporting to the Samuderan Ministry of Defence, and are responsible for the peacetime operation of the armed forces of the Crowned Federation. The armed forces are divided into three branches, namely the Army, Air Force, and Navy. The primary task of the agency is to defend the country in the event of war. Due to the Samuderan neutrality policy, the Samuderan Armed Forces do not take part in armed conflicts in other countries, but are part of some peacekeeping missions worldwide. The supreme commander of the Samuderan Armed Forces is the Federal Government of Samudera Darussalam.



The creation of the Samuderan Armed Forces is related to the security policy of the Crowned Federation, which subscribes to the doctrine of "armed neutrality". As such, conscription was mandatory for male citizens aged from 20 to 30,  with female service voluntary, to heighten the sense of preparedness should the call to defend the country arises. In recent years, military recruitment has since largely shifted towards finding the most motivated recruits rather than solely focusing on those physically most fit, and with the suspension of conscription in 2011, the armed forces have since switch to an all-volunteer force. As a result, the Samuderan Armed Forces maintain one of the more modest military size in the region, although it may be dramatically expanded should the suspension lifted.

Also considered a part of the Samuderan Armed Forces is the Secret Intelligence and Security Service (Samuderan: Dinas Intelijen dan Keamanan Rahasia, SISS), an agency under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defence that is responsible for foreign intelligence gathering and analysis. Its counterpart is the Internal Security Service (Samuderan: Dinas Keamanan Dalam Negeri, ISS), the federal domestic intelligence agency of Samudera which reports directly to the Ministry of Interior. Due to concerns regarding the threats of cyberwarfare, the Crowned Federation has also consistently developing its cybersecurity capabilities to defend itself.

Geography
Located in Central Mandalanusa, Samudera consists of the peninsula of Samudera and the major islands of Labuan, Cempaka, and Saka (shared with Eraman), as well as dozens of smaller islands surrounding those territories. Within Samudera, the peninsula and its surrounding islands are often referred to as "the mainland" or "Samudera proper", while the rest are known as "overseas territories" or "the island part of Samudera". Ferries or small aircraft remain as the only connection with the smaller islands, while some of the larger islands are already connected with bridges or tunnels.

The country occupies a total area of 261,800 square kilometers (101,100 sq mil), slightly less than half of which is land. Samudera has land borders with Bachok in the peninsula and Eraman in the island of Saka, while it shares maritime boundaries with Chuying, Sansanos, Sharktail, and Southern Palm Islands. Separating the peninsula with the islands of Labuan and Cempaka is the Panjang Strait, a waterway that forms one of the region's most important trade routes.

The mainland and island part of Samudera possess significantly different landscapes. Peninsular Samudera, containing 59% of Samudera's land area, extends from the Titiwangsa Mountains in the north to the Panjang Strait in the south. Enclosed by the landmass is the Palembang Bay, a protruding water body that gives the peninsula its distinctive shape. While the southern part of the peninsula mostly consists of flat plain with little elevation, the Titiwangsa Mountains and Tembering Plateau are the dominant features north of the Central Valley region, where most of the peninsula's river systems originated. Heavily forested and mainly composed of granites and other igneous rocks, this elevated region is also home to Samudera's highest point of Mount Gambang, which rises up to 1,580 m (5,183.73 ft).



The two islands of Labuan and Cempaka share a largely similar geographical feature where coastal plains gave way to gently rolling hills in the interior, albeit in the case of the former, several mountains also exist in the south-central part of the island. Although the region was once heavily forested, significant portions have since been converted into arable land, which causes the state government to deploy measures to retain the remaining forests. Separated by the Labuan Strait from Cempaka, the island of Labuan hosts the highest point of the island part of Samudera, where Mount Hantu rises to the height of 602 m (1,975.1 ft). Tanjung Biawak, the southernmost point of Samudera Darussalam, is located in the southern part of the nearby island of Cempaka.

Climate
Owing to its geographical position between the equator and Tropic of Capricorn, Samudera has a predominantly tropical climate, with the presence of a more temperate climate in the northern and interior part of the peninsula, where mountains and highlands predominate. Samudera have two main seasons: a hot rainy season that lasts from November-April, and a relatively cooler dry season from May-October. Precipitation is heavy, especially during the rainy season. Temperature varies by region, with regions located in higher altitude normally have cooler annual temperature. In the mainland, temperature generally ranges from 23 °C (73.4 °F) to 31 °C (87.8 °F).

Meanwhile, due to its relatively uniform flat geography, the island territory of Samudera Darussalam usually maintain warm and humid climate year-round, with little changes in temperature. The island of Labuan receives a higher amount of rainfall than the rest of the country, while a lesser amount of annual rainfall is recorded in some secluded valleys in the mountainous northern part of the Samuderan peninsula. A record amount of rainfall was reported in the State of Labuan and Cempaka on January 2019, with 1,500 mm (59 in) worth of rain fell within a single month. According to the government, this phenomenon has caused flooding and agricultural problems in the affected region.

Biodiversity
Samudera belongs to the Paleotropical Kingdom and can be divided into two main ecoregions: the Samuderan lowland forests and Samuderan moist highland forests. The first zone tend to dominate the low-lying coastal regions of the Samuderan peninsula, as well as the islands of Labuan, Cempaka, and Saka. Meanwhile, the mountainous interior of Peninsular Samudera and parts of the island of Labuan tend to have highland forests as its primary ecoregion. Other zones that can be found in the country include the tropical montane cloud forests in the higher altitude areas as well as mangrove in parts of the coasts.

The country possesses a high level of diversity, with various species of flora and fauna can be found within its territories. Several of those are considered as endemic to Samudera Darussalam, such as the great argus and the Samuderan tiger, the former can now be only found in the island part of Samudera. Peninsular Samudera is home to large variety of insects, oligochaeta, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. Wild mammal species of note are largely land-based and include tigers, mousedeers, deers, monkeys, porcupines, squirrels, and civets.

Massive deforestation and land conversion throughout the 19th and 20th century had caused drastic loss in forested areas and threatened the natural ecosystem in the country. Through the persistent instigations of the Samuderan scientific community, the federal government has taken steps to preserve biodiversity by establishing conservation areas and working together with international partners to reverse the population decline of endangered species. According to the 2020 data, Samudera has established not less than 12 national parks and 10 biosphere reserves. A 2018 joint study conducted by the Royal University of Palembang and the Labuan Institute of Biology revealed that the preservation efforts have accomplished, among others, the increase of forest cover of up to 25% of the land as well as the recovery of the Samuderan tiger population to a sustainable level.

Environmental Issues
Land and water pollution are two of Samudera's most significant environmental issues, although much of the country's household and industrial waste is now increasingly filtered and recycled. The country has historically taken a progressive stance to environmental preservation, including the institution of strict environmental laws and the establishment of a Ministry of Environment in 1980 with the aim to help transform the country into becoming more environmentally-friendly, such as its transformation from fossil to renewable energies.

Another relevant issue of the country is its relatively high national ecological footprint, despite efforts to lower the country's emission. Contributing factors include high value for both cropland and grazing land, which can be attributed to the high agricultural production in Samudera and the large role that the sector played in economy. The high meat consumption of Samuderans, where it is often utilized in cuisine, is also thought of as another factor that contributes highly to the country's emission.

Demographics
With a population of 27.02 million according to the 2021 Samuderan Census, Samudera is one of the most populous countries in Mandalanusa. Its population density stands at 212 inhabitants per square kilometre (549 per square mile), which also makes it one of the most densely populated. The Crowned Federation has a low fertility rate at around 1.6 children born per woman (2021 estimates) which places it below the placement rate of 2.1. An ageing population and low birth rate contributed to Samudera having one of the oldest population in the region, with an average age of 32 years. Subsequently, Samudera is facing a future issue of declining workforce and population, which has prompted the federal government to encourage more childbirth through various policies. Life expectancy of Samuderans is high with an average of 83 years.

Samudera's relaxed approach towards migration and image as a refugee-friendly country has attracted foreign immigrants to its soil. Of the country's residents, 675,570 (2.5%) were of immigrant or partially immigrant descent in 2019, mostly concentrated in and around Ujong and Melaka.

The Crowned Federation is heavily urbanized, with around 87% of its total population lives in urban areas and cities. There are a number of large cities in the country, with 5 officially-recognized metropolitan regions. Samudera's largest city is Ujong, while its largest urban area is the Ujong-Padang Metropolitan area. Recent developments has saw the unofficial amalgamation of Samudera's two largest metropolitan regions into a continuous urban corridor called the "Blue crescent" (Samuderan: Sabit Biru) or the Ujong-Palembang Axis, with a combined population of 11 million.

Ethnic groups
Samudera is home to three ethnic "constituent peoples", namely Samuderans, Gadangese, and Cempakans. Samuderans constitute the largest ethnic group at 44.5%, followed by Gadangese at 34.6% and Cempakans at 11%. The three ethnicities share a similar origin of having originated from the Lanyarans, who came through the latest major wave of human migration in the region. According to local traditions, Gadangese is thought of as the oldest ethnic group in the country, having descended from the Meilawatians, who were the original inhabitants of the peninsula. The influx of Samuderan tribes from the east and the subsequent assimilation that occured afterwards gave birth to the modern identity of ethnic Samuderan, while the Cempakans were originated from the acculturation process between the native islander with the later settlers from Samudranagara and Gadang who arrived during the imperial era.



Smaller ethnic groups exist in the Crowned Federation, including the Yue, Palmyrans, and Milchamians. According to the 2021 population census, Yue is the largest minority group, standing at 3.4%, followed by Palmyrans at 1.2%, while the Milchamians and other ethnicities both form an equal proportion at 1% each of the total population. The existence of the Yue and Palmyrans are dated from at least the 17th century, during the height of Samudera's rise as a regional trading power. Other groups such as the Milchamians are descended from the much later migration in the 20th century onwards.

The introduction of the "having mixed heritage" category in the 2020 census has resulted in a small but growing numbers of Samuderan citizens to began identifying themselves under that category. At present, around 3.3% of the total population are identifying themselves as having mixed heritage, placing their number as roughly equal to the Yue. Their existence is tied to the growing diversity in the country, in which variations of ethnic diversity can be significant, with the more urban southern and central parts of peninsula are recorded as having higher percentage of non-native Samuderans compared to the other parts of the country.

Languages
Samudera is a multilingual country, with Samuderan and Gadangese being the two predominant languages. Both were considered as prestigious due to their use in courts, but Samuderan saw wider use among the general populace due to its higher intelligibility with the other Mandalanusan languages, as well as its flexibility in absorbing foreign influence throughout centuries of interaction. As a result, it becomes the unofficial lingua franca of the country, especially during the periods of expansion that saw the absorption of various non-traditional Samuderan lands into the realm. The imposition of Samuderan as the official language of the administration and academics during the Three Brothers' Era started a trend that continued for the next several centuries, further cementing its status as something of a national language. As a result, the modern Constitution of Samudera acknowledges Samuderan - natively known as bahasa Samudera - as the official language of the country along with Terranean, which is mostly used in official business and government as well as legal contracts. A more colloquial form known as Samerran exists, but its use is discouraged in official capacity as its incrompehensible to the speakers of Standard Terranean.

According to the 2021 Census, Samuderan is the most spoken language in the Crowned Federation, with virtually every citizen able to speak it. It's the primary language of 13.24 million people, or 49% of the total population. Gadangese, the second most common language and the first language of 34.4% of the population, is mostly spoken in the State of Gadang and the island of Labuan, while Cempakan is most commonly used in the island of Cempaka. The fourth most prevalent language is a Samuderan-based creole language called the Kampiun language, which drew various influences from Yueyu, Palmyran, Terranean, Lusitanian, and more recently, Milchamian. It's most commonly spoken among the Samuderan Yue, Serani, Milchamian, and Palmyran communities as well as among several families with mixed heritage. Yueyu and Malayalam however are still spoken among the more recently-established communities, and are facing a resurgence among its respective communities due to the increasing demand to learn.

The Samuderan Sign Language (Bahasa Isyarat Samudera, BIS) is the principal language of the deaf community in Samudera Darussalam, and is also the officially-recognized form of sign language to be used in official and public capacity. Mirroring Samudera's diverse nature, BIS also has many dialects and may differ across states or communities.

Latin, or more popularly known in Samudera as "Rumi" has for the most part replaced the Samuderan alphabet as a means of writing in the country, except for ceremonial occasions and cultural rites. Due to its simplicity and wide global usage, it has been long recognized as a working script of the federal government along with the native Samuderan alphabet. As a result, many of official and legal documents use a combined Rumi and Samuderan style, although the latter are mostly used in headings or as part of a particular phrase. Samuderan alphabet continues to be promoted in schools, with children are encouraged to learn and use the script in several subjects.

Religion
Samudera is a secular state with no established official state religion, with the Samuderan constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience. Prior to 2018 Constitutional Amendment that institutionalize the separation of mosque and state, Islam was the state religion of Samudera Darussalam with a special place reserved in the constitution.



Islam is the predominant religion in the Crowned Federation, with 78.3% of the population declared themselves as Muslims. Three out of five Samuderan Muslims identify themselves with non-denominational Islam, while another 28% identify as Sunnis, mainly of the Shafi'i madhhab. The others are consisted of Ahmadis, who constitute 5% from the Muslim population, followed by Ismaili Shias at 3%, Sufis at 2%, and 2% Quranists. Eversince 1990, declining religious attendance is on the rise among Samuderan Muslims. According to the 2020 survey conducted by the non-profit organization House of Knowledge, only 49.7% of those surveyed attend mosque once a week or more, although a majority of Samuderan Muslims still observe the religously required practice of abstention of alcohol (74%) and performing the fast during Ramadan (96%).



Around 7% of Samuderans identify themselves as followers of the traditional faith, Bethinan, which makes it the second largest religion in the country. Adherents of Bethinan are traditionally concentrated in the state of Labuan and Cempaka, where they consistently make up around 20% of the total population. Historically, the followers of Bethinan have always performing a syncretic religious practice, first by combining it with elements from Vinaya and Sanatana Dharma, and then absorbing certain aspects of Islam after the conquest of the islands of Labuan and Cempaka by the Muslim Kingdom of Samudera in the early 17th century. The third largest religions are Christianity and Vinaya, with a roughly equal share of the total population at 2%. Most Christians of Samudera Darussalam are members of Roman Catholic and Protestant churches, with their population tend to be dominated by those who describe themselves as having mixed heritage, particularly from the Serani community, as well as from the Samuderan Yue, who also form the majority of Samuderan Vinayans.

The next largest religions in Samudera are Sanatana Dharma and Judaism, each makes up around 1% of the total population. Most of Samuderan Palmyran and Girian communities adhere to this religion. Meanwhile, Judaism is followed exclusively by members of the Samuderan Milchamian community who tend to be concentrated in several major urban areas, such as Ujong, Melaka, and Palembang.

Other results from the 2021 census state that around 8.7% of Samuderans describe themselves as either irreligious or are not a member of a religious organization or denomination. A study conducted in 2019 found that a third of those who consider themselves to be irreligious believe in the existence of a greater power of some sort in the universe.

Education
Responsibility for educational supervision in Samudera is primarily organized within the individual states with the exception of Samudranagara, which falls under the responsibility of the Federal Ministry of Education along with the federal territories. Despite its devolved nature, each state and/or territory similarly have three stages of education, namely primary, secondary, and higher education. Preschool education is provided by the various educational authorities for children from the age of three years old, although it is optional.

The compulsory school age differs between the Mainland and Island part of Samudera. In the areas that fall under the jurisdiction of the Federal Ministry of Education as well as in the state of Gadang, full-time education is compulsory for children aged 6-18, while in Labuan and Cempaka, formal education starts at age 7. This full-time education does not need to be at school and parents may choose to home educate if they wish, albeit by still following the standards set by local educational authorities. Primary education usually lasts for about four to six years, after which is followed by secondary education, which is further divided into lower and upper-secondary levels. Lower-secondary education is meant to teach individuals the basic general education and preparing them for upper-secondary education.

Samuderan upper-secondary education involves two types of school: trade school and high school. Trade schools offer a vocational education, while academically-oriented high schools have higher entrance requirements and specifically prepare for UMPT (Ujian Masuk Perguruan Tinggi, matriculation examination) and tertiary education. Approximately 40% of pupils from the lower secondary schools choose to enroll in trade schools after their graduation. As the decision for secondary school influences the student's future, an orientation phase (Masa Penentuan) is in place during a student's attendance at lower secondary, in which teachers work with parents to review the student's skills, abilities, as well as academic attainment to determine best upper-secondary school fit. During this phase, changes for decision can be made more easily, but in practice, teachers are afraid of sending pupils to more academic schools whereas parents are afraid of sending their children to less academic schools. In Gadang, this orientation program is embedded into elementary schools, where teachers give an educational recommendation based on scholastic achievements in the main subjects (mathematics, natural sciences, Samuderan, foreign language) and classroom behavior.

Graduation from trade and high school formally qualifies for tertiary education. There are two types of mostly separate and non-interoperating sectors in tertiary education: the profession-related polytechnics and research-oriented universities. According to the database of the Federal Ministry of Education, there are 40 universities and 56 polytechnics that are operating in the country. Samudera's tertiary education is acknowledged for its quality, and is ranked as the best in the region. Reputable universities of Samudera include Royal University of Palembang, both Gadang University and Ujong Medical University in Ujong, University of Northern Peninsula in Medan Putera and Bandar Nipah, University of Indrapura, PAMU University in Bandar Labuan, Palembang University of Technology, and Mutiara University.

Samudera has a universal free education, and its successive governments have been dedicating a substantial portion of their budget to the educational sector. The country enjoys a high literacy rate of 99.7%, with around 36% of residents have a tertiary degree, from which more than 30% are in science-related fields. Adult education is a more recent addition to the Samuderan education system, having been introduced in 2004 first as a series of classes and vocational trainings for adults who wish to train or learn new skills. Dato' Lee Institute in Medan Putera is the oldest and largest educational institution that continues to offer education to teenagers and adolescents alike in the country, teaching subjects ranging from cooking to economics.

Terranean remains an important language in Samuderan education, which help attracts foreign exchange students. In 2017, a new federal law considering the universities was enacted, limiting tuition subsidies to foreign students who come from Mandalanusan nations and countries with whom Samudera has an educational partnership.

Health
The average life expectancy of Samuderans is 83 years as of 2020, with women generally enjoys higher average life expectancy of 84 compared to the 82 of men. The Crowned Federation has a very low infant mortality rate, with a measured number of 2.8 per 1000 live births, making it as the lowest in the region.

Similarly to education, healthcare in Samudera is also a devolved matter, with each state has its own system of private and publicly funded healthcare. Public healthcare is provided to all citizens of Samudera Darussalam and is mostly free at the point of need, being paid for from general taxation. As of 2020, 9% of the federal budget were dedicated to healthcare.

Regulatory bodies are organised on a federal basis, such as the the Medical Association of Samudera, as well as non-governmental-based, like the royal colleges. Meanwhile, political and operational responsibilities of healthcare lies with 3 executives; the federal government is responsible for healthcare in Samudranagara and the federal territories; likewise, the state governments of Gadang and Labuan and Cempaka are responsible for healthcare in their own areas of jurisdictions. As each health service has different policies and priorities, this has resulted in contrasts. The provision of healthcare in Samudera ranks among the best in the region. However, as it has seen slight decline in recent years, there are growing calls for oversight and reform.

Lifestyle-related diseases and health complications are traditionally low, but have seen slight increase over the years. Diabetes, musculoskeletal diseases, and cancers are reported to be increasing, although the cancer prognosis has improved. Allergies and dementias are also growing problems in the country. Mental disorders are cited as one of the most common reasons of work disability in the country.