Samudera Darussalam

Samudera, officially the Crowned Federation of Samudera, the Abode of Peace, (Samuderan: ꦦꦺꦂꦱꦺꦏꦸꦠꦸꦮꦤ꧀​ꦣꦶꦫꦗ​ꦯꦩꦸꦢꦺꦫ​ꦣꦫꦸꦱ꧀ꦱꦭꦩ꧀, Persekutuan Diraja Samudera Darussalam), is a federal, sovereign country located in the Melayu Archipelago. It is situated mainly on the Samuderan peninsula, although it also possess significant overseas territories, such as Labuan and Cempaka. The country has an estimated population of 26.3 millions, mainly concentrated in urban areas (as of 2019).

The concept of a Samuderan nation-state doesn't appear until around the 9th century after the collapse of the Meilawati empire that controlled much of the peninsula. At the conclusion of the Great Northern Wars, a loose confederation was formed by the Malay states of the north through the Pact of Indrapura at 1211, which formed a basis of the unified state of Samudera. Throughout the 15th and 16th century the country grew to encompass much of its current territories, notably by the adoption of the Treaty of Union in January 1545 that unifies the mainland kingdoms of Samudranagara and Gadang. Samudera entered a period of self-isolation during the Three Brothers' Era, which was ended in 1760 due to pressure from Dutch merchants to open to the West. After more than a decade of internal conflict in the court, Samudera was left severely weakened and accepted British protection at the 19th century, which lasted until March 1 1960. Eversince its independence, the country has long maintained its neutrality, although as of recently it started to play a more active role in international politics.

Following the Revolution of 1928 and the revision of its constitution, Samudera Darussalam is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as its head of state and a mangkubumi as its head of government. The city of Palembang holds the status as the country's nominal capital and is the location where most of the royal family resides, while the national government is based in the city of Bandar Raja. Samudera exercises a hegemonic influence in its realm, devolving powers to handle internal affairs to its component states.

Samudera is a highly developed country with an advanced, high-income economy. Social and labour-market reforms in the 20th century provide the basis of the present state welfare system which is comparable to the Nordic model, with universal health care and education available for all of its citizens. The country relies exclusively on renewable energies and has been utilizing and researching green technology since the late 20th century to reduce its emissions. It maintains large swathes of forested areas within its territories, which are protected with various strict environmental laws.

Etymology
The first known documented use of the name Samudera dates back to 1337 in which, according to the local literature Tales of Palembang, the lord of Palembang Sri Jayanegara first declared the founding of the "Kingdom of Samudranagara" from the ashes of the Eternal League of States.

Most linguistic experts believe that the name Samudera is derived from word समुद्र (samudra) which means ocean in Sanskrit and Tamil. Although it has yet to be proved scientifically, the theory aligns with a local folklore that claims the ancestors of Samuderans as coming from the sea. In the country's full name, Persekutuan Diraja Samudera Darussalam, "darussalam" (Arabic: دار السلام‎) means "abode of peace", while "persekutuan diraja" means "the crowned federation" in Malay.

The adjective "Samuderan" is commonly used to refer to matters related to Samudera Darussalam. The term has no definite legal connotation, but is used in law to refer to the citizenship of Samudera Darussalam and matters to do with nationality. However, the term is also used as an ethnic and regional identity by people who hailed from the component state of Samudranagara, and thus may cause confusion. The official designation for a citizen of Samudera Darussalam is "Samuderan citizen".

Early history


Settlement by anatomically modern humans in what was to become Samudera occured in waves beginning by about 40,000 years ago. The last and largest of these were the Austronesians, who form the majority of modern population. Favourable geographical conditions led to the development of several prehistoric civilizations in the peninsula, such as the Ambang city-states.

Meilawatian conquest in 3 CE started the written history of the region. The 600-year Meilawatian rule left a lasting legacy to the area, with the locals adopted Indianized Meilawatian culture and religions. A combination of outside threats and devastating civil wars led to the demise of the empire, which was quickly followed by the disintegration of its territories. Invasion by Samuderan settlers to the area not long after confined the remnants of the former Meilawatian nobles to the southwestern part of the peninsula, which led to the creation of the Kingdom of Gadang in the 11th century. Claiming the legacy of the fallen empire, Gadang's attempts to reconquer the rest of the region were barely successful and it remained as the sole stable nation in the peninsula for the next 2 centuries.



The formation of a unified Samuderan nation began with the outbreak of the Great Northern Wars at the start of the 13th century. Taking advantage of the chaos in the north, the datus of Gadang staged an invasion of the border states, making another attempt to bring the Central Valley communities under their rule. As a consequence, conflict broke out between Gadang and its neighbouring states to the north who tried to defend their independence. Following the Sack of Yhu in 1202, a massive coalition of opposing forces were then formed by the nations of Central Valley to fight off the invasion, finally resulting in the successful Battle of Bayang in 1211 where the Gadangese suffered a decisive defeat.

A combination of the devastation caused by the Great Northern Wars, disputes, and fear of another invasion led to a series of conventions between the Samuderan states for some time after the armistice with Gadang was signed off. In an unanimous decision, memorized in folklores and the document "Tales of Palembang", the states agreed to form a more lasting alliance to replace the older military coalition in order to promote peace and order throughout the region. With the ratification of the Pact of Indrapura by several Samuderan states in 1211, ' 'the Eternal League of States" finally came into being; among its initial members are the states of Ganen, Yhu, and Bayang. However, despite being members of the same coalition, Palembang and Ayer didn't immediately join the League until only later at the end of 1211 due to internal feuds among its ruling clans.

With most of the northern nations much or less are united under one banner, the situation began to stabilize in the Central Valley region. As a result, commerce began to grow both inwardly and outwardly, bringing prosperity to the formerly war-torn lands. Fuelled by the new riches, the League grew to absorb its surrounding territories either by peaceful means or military force: the Treaty of Sebak saw the inclusion of Pekan and Batang in 1265, while Dharmawangsa was conquered in 1283. As a result, by the early 14th century, the League has already controlled a substantial amount of territories in the northern and central part of the peninsula, elevating it to a major regional power along with Gadang to the south.



Throughout the last 13th to the early 14th century, a distinct Samuderan indigenous culture began to emerge in territories ruled by the League. During this time, the Samuderan alphabet was first developed as the primary means of writing, replacing the earlier pali script used in the Melawati era. Its introduction in the 1300s contributed to the spread of literacy in the region and helped promoting the use of the Samuderan Malay dialect as a ' 'lingua franca", as it was the main language used by the script to write in.

The nation was eventually ravaged by internal feud amongst the leading clans of the member states. During this time, the lack of unity within the Eternal League costed them the border regions of Muara and Indralama, lost to Gadang during the 1325 Battle of Muara. As tensions mounted, the League succumbed to a series of civil wars in the 14th century, once again fragmenting the northern part of the peninsula into several warring factions. This period of confusion in the north was known as the "Warring States era".

It was during this time, according to Samuderan official history, that Islam was introduced to the region by Muslim merchants, though historical practices and accounts of the Samuderan magical communities suggest that the knowledge of the Abrahamic religion was known since at least 2 centuries earlier, possibly through interaction with the local Middle Eastern magical communities. Nevertheless, it was not until the conversion of the Gadangese monarch Aryawarman in 1330 that Islam began to be widely embraced by the populace, at least in the south. To the north of the borders, the spread of Islam was hindered by the resistance of the Bethinan priests who wield large influence over the feuding states of the former League.

The end of the Warring States era could be attributed to the successful Palembang wars of conquest in the latter part of the 1330s, which saw the annexation of the other states and the establishment of the Kingdom of Samudranagara under the leadership of the former lord of Palembang, Sri Jayanegara. His attempts at consolidation of power were opposed by the once powerful Bethinan priests, culminating in a series of insurrections in 1338 that nearly tore the new nation apart. With the support of Gadang, the Samudranagaran monarch and his troops managed to defeat the clerics and their supporters in the Battle of Indrapura, ultimately ending the power struggle in royal favour. While the lost of power and influence of the priests as a result of the defeat greatly helped the spread of Islam in the peninsula, the subsequent backlash suffered by the losing side in the aftermath would then prompted many to migrate to the southern island of Cempaka, setting up another state that is independent from the mainland.



The start of the 15th century was characterized by a period of intense development in the Samuderan states, though what would be considered as important achievements of the Samuderan nation-building by experts happened in the two mainland kingdoms of Gadang and Samudranagara. Governmental reforms done by Baginda Arifin of Gadang provided the circumstances that led to the codification of law in the southern part of the peninsula, producing what is now known as "Kanun Gadang". Influenced by both Islamic principles and local customary laws, the kanun was the first written constitution in the region, serving as the basis for the development of similar laws in the other Samuderan states in the later era. Meanwhile in the north, Samudranagara expanded to include lands south of the Pasak River, while its people started colonizing the Island of Saka to the east. However it's in 1415 CE that a fundamental change occured for the nations of the peninsula, shifting it from the waning influence of the old gods, as reported by local sources. The Samuderan royal family's conversion to Islam, encouraged by the reigning monarch Wikara Warman who have previously accepted the religion, brought radical changes to the government and society in the north, as Islam becoming more widespread thanks to the official patronage now provided to the faith. By 1430, it is estimated that most of Samuderan population are already Muslims, following the path of their rulers.

Treaty of Union
The seeds for political union between the kingdoms of Gadang and Samudranagara were first planted near the end of 15th century by the marriage of Prince Mansur of Samudranagara to Princess Badiah of Gadang, as an attempt to end the intermittent warfare between the two kingdoms that have been waged over the previous 145 years earlier. However, the peace was broken when a rogue faction of the Gadangese royal family seized power in 1490 and commanded an invasion to try to wrestle away the Muara region that have been taken over by Samudranagara in their previous war. The resulting Third Battle of Muara costed both nations great losses, including the demise of the reigning monarch of Gadang and many of his supporters. With the previously deposed faction managed to get back in power, Gadang formally ending the war with its northern neighbour, albeit with several territorial exchanges.

The death of King Ahmad Syah of Samudranagara without issue at April 1540 caused a political crisis in the royal court of Palembang. Left with no other choice, the nobilities of the kingdom turned towards his cousin-twice-removed, Iskandar of Gadang, to inherit the throne of Samudranagara as the last living male descendant of the Jayanegaran Dynasty. Subsequently in 1540, he assumed the throne of Samudranagara as King Iskandar I, joining the two nations under a personal union.

The new monarch's ascension to the throne transformed the peninsula into a single entity perhaps for the first time since the fall of Meilawati. Iskandar I not only recognized this, but seeing that unification might be the only way to bring an everlasting peace to the region, have been encouraging a deeper integration of the kingdoms into a real unified state. His attempts were opposed in both realms, particularly by the nobilities of Gadang, who feared that they are going to be dominated by the larger Samudranagara.

Following years of political squabbles, a compromise between the court and the nobilities was reached at January 1545 in a series of negotiations now known as the "Miracle of Palembang". The compromise between the two parties was then enshrined as part of the Treaty of Union, which itself also serves as the basis for the creation of a unified kingdom and government institutions, such as the Majlis. Acknowledging the different nature of the two realms, the treaty also reserved the right to home rule for both states, although in practice, the Kingdom of Samudranagara would still be under direct jurisdiction of the unified government. With the treaty formally taking effect on January 17th 1545, the Kingdom of Samudera-Gadang was born with its capital in Palembang, though by time the country would be known only by its first name, Samudera.

Growth of a nation
In the end of the 16th century, Samudera flourished as a center of trade for Central Melayu Archipelago thanks to its geographical location and its trade-supporting policies. Samuderan ships and merchants were enganged in numerous sea voyages in pursuit of trade as far away as India, bringing valuable commodities and ideas to the peninsula. This exchange led to an explosion in cultural and learning activities in the kingdom, spurring what historians called "the Samuderan Golden Age".

Under the rule of Queen Safiyatuddin, Samudera began to realize its imperial ambitions at the cost of its neighbours. The Wars of the Two Rivers (1603-1604) saw the annexation of lands north of the country, while trade outposts and colonies began to be set up along its trade routes. One of the first and most important overseas possession of Samudera however, is located in what would be known as the modern State of Labuan and Cempaka to the south.



Before its conquest, the island of Cempaka was ruled by several petty states following the collapse of the Kingdom of Cempaka in the end of the 15th century. Among these states, piracy perhaps became a source of revenue eversince 1590 according to the "Tales of Palembang", with the pirates from the city-state of Mutiara especially having a feared reputation among the sailors bypassing the Panjang Strait. With the intention to safeguard its interest in the vital trade route, Samudera launched a successful invasion to the island in 1608, destroying the last significant resistance of the islanders in the Battle of the Cove. Although the first settlers from the peninsula had been soldiers garrisoned in conquered settlements, influx of civilians came with the attempts of Palembang to strengthen its control over the newly conquered territory. In 1610, a royal decree issued the establishment of colonies in the islands of Labuan and Cempaka, starting a large scale population migration from the mainland. The eventual assimilation process, caused by the intermixing of many of these newcomers with the native population, would later gave birth to the modern Cempakan Malay identity.

Chaos reigned as the power of the Samuderan monarchs subsided near the middle of the 16th century, after large insurrections broke out throughout the kingdom, spurred by disputes over noble rights. In the midst of the infighting, a faction managed to rose to power, gaining influence in the Samuderan court. The Talang family was originally one of the old nobilities that commanded over plantations in the colonies, but then got involved in the power struggle for control over the country. Led by the oldest son Ismail, they managed to ascend to power in 1650, effectively controlling the kingdom as mangkubumis and replacing the Royal Family as the de facto ruler of the nation. Because of that, this stage of history would then be known as the "Three Brothers' Era", named for the three sons from the Talang family that governed the country during this time.

The "Three Brothers' Era" was characterized as a period of consolidation of power by the central government following years of weak authority. Under the Talangs, Samudera began to embark on a path of centralization, first by depriving the traditionally autonomous nobles from their power by enacting the "Laws for the Noble Houses" in 1658, and then monopolizing the trade through the isolationist "sea-ban" policy that lasted for 90 years, culminating in more than a century of firm political unity. While initially it proved disastrous towards the economy, the resulting stable atmosphere provided the government opportunity to pursue various reforms, from the standarization of Samuderan alphabet used throughout the realm in 1663 to agricultural and tax reforms in 1675, that would helped jump-start the Samuderan proto-industrial revolution.

Despite the isolationist nature of the state, limited contact with the outside world is maintained through the only open ports of Melaka and Ujong, from which the study of Western and Eastern sciences continued. The "Three Brothers' Era" period also gave rise to pembelajaran negara ("national studies"), the study of Samudera by the Samuderans. While it's not exactly remarkable, the latter development would allow, among other things, the compilation of the historical document "Tales from Palembang", a prized local source of Samuderan history.

Modern era
Initially uninterested, rumours of potential lucrative trade opportunities coupling with the desire to rehabilitate its name following the 1740 Batavia massacre has prompted the VOC to explore the Melayu Archipelago. Their initial attempts at diplomacy were rejected by the Samuderans, until in 1760 four armed Dutch ships under the leadership of Captain Willem Janssen arrived and forced the opening of Samudera to the outside world. Intimidated at the prospect of invasion by a more advanced opponent, the Mangkubumi government signed the Treaty of Melaka.

The forced opening of the country shook the country to its core, and subsequent similar treaties with other Western nations brought economic and political crises. As efforts to emulate Western technology in an attempt of catching up failed, the mangkubumi resigned and triggering the Peninsular War in 1774. During the course of the war, the remaining Talangs and their supporters were forced to flee to the island of Cempaka, while the mainland came under control of another faction. Failing to acquire help from foreign powers, the Talangs eventually buckled under military invasions from the mainland in the following years, at last reuniting the country. In 1776, a centralized state nominally unified under the monarch was established, and the monarchy was restored to power.



Under the rule of Muzaffar Shah (1770-1796), the government began adopting Western political and military institutions. Students were sent to Turkey and Europe to learn technological expertise, while Samudera acquired Western military technology from playing off rival European powers against one another. In 1781, the cabinet with the help and approval of the newly-organized parliament introduced the new constitution, while state led industrialization policy was implemented in order to even the gap with the Western nations. The modernizing effort led to the emergence of Samudera as one of the strongest native powers in the region, helping it to stand its ground against its opponents in the Portuguese-Samuderan War (1785-1786).

Succession disputes rocked the government in 1798 following the sudden death of King Badrul Alam without a suitable heir apparent. The internal strife didn't go unnoticed by the European colonial powers, who began to support their own candidates in the dispute in exchange for concessions, including territorial. The victory of the Portuguese-supported rival faction, and the acquisition of Melaka by the Portuguese in 1800 as a result was unacceptable to many, however, and led to the formation of a united opposing front who then asked for Britain to help depose the reigning monarch.

The help didn't come until the outbreak of the revolutionary wars in Europe in the end of the 18th century that began to spill over to areas outside the continent. Britain, who felt that its position and interest in the area is threatened finally intervened, leading to an eventual victory of the alliance in 1808 and the end of the conflict. The decade-long war however, also left Samuderan economy in ruins, that inevitably led to increasing British influence as its primary backer and the only major power with a foothold in the country. As the country was threatened by European colonial expansion, the government finally signed an agreement with the British Empire (subsequently known as the Anglo-Samuderan Agreement of 1812), making Samudera a British protected state, thus giving Britain control over its external affairs while guaranteeing Samuderan territorial integrity. Nonetheless the fall of the kingdom into British sphere of influence spurred discontentment among the nobles and intelligentsia, that at last erupted into a rebellion in 1816. With the help of the British, the kingdom managed to suppress the dissent, though with the cost of cementing the bond it had with the European nation.

A revitalization of the Samuderan economy didn't occur until 1824, when cotton was introduced and plantations made a resurgence. Despite its moderate production, Samudera began to accumulate significant revenue from the trade, enabling it to slowly rebuild, and then expanding its industrial base and infrastructures including the construction of more modern shipyards and roads. In 1850, the lease of the port of Ujong to the British have provided the kingdom with more wealth that are used to develop more institutions to accommodate its growing economy, such as the national bank. As a result, slowly but surely the country's economy began to recover to its prewar level in the 1870s.

The end of the 19th century was marked with a growing regional movement. Centered in the former Kingdom of Gadang, it aimed to give more autonomy to the provinces of Samudera. After long debates in the parliament, a consensus is achieved in which limited regional autonomy is granted. Rising tensions between central and regional governments, however, would become the catalyst to the 1890 constitutional crisis of Gadang, and resulting in the kingdom's revocation of regional autonomy. The movement was then forced to move underground, eventhough it keeps on fuelling dissatisfaction among segments of the population.

World wars and independence


Samudera remains neutral during the course of World War I, and as such is not directly affected. However, the resulting economic stagnation, discontentment towards the government, along with overseas influences such as demands for universal suffrage, labour rights, and sympathy for the Khilafat movement following the abolishment of the Caliphate contributed to the growing dissent that eventually erupted into the Revolution of 1928. Despite promise from the British resident to help suppress the movement, the Samuderan government finally acquiesced to the revolutioners' demands to avoid further conflicts. As a result, the revolution succeeded to achieve its goals, including the establishment of a parliamentary system of government and the revision of the nation's constitution to guarantee fundamental rights.

The outbreak of World War II was initially met with general apathy in Samudera, which is located far enough from the fighting. Nevertheless, the government showed pro-Allied stance and offered asylum for fleeing Jewish refugees, citing Islamic moral obligation. Subsequent Japanese invasion of India and Southeast Asia, however, induced the country to support British war efforts due to fear of a possible Japanese attack as the British base of Port Ubung is located nearby. By the end of the war, the country has contributed both materially and militarily on the Allied side, especially during the Southeast Asian campaigns.

The end of World War II saw Samudera retreated from the world stage to focus on its internal affairs. Reforms were done to improve the nation economically and socially, and the development of telephone line and later, television was done to connect the country. Along with the nation's healthcare sector, education saw a lot of investment from the post-war Samuderan government, as they believe it to be a key to the nation's future. Consequently, the life standard of most Samuderans began to rise significantly throughout the 20th century with the exception of the Bethinan community, which remains discriminated throughout much of the 1940s to 1970s as a result of communist scares.

In the 1950s, rising sentiments for full independence were observed in the kingdom, eventhough the government remained committed to the Anglo-Samuderan Agreement. Growing pressure from the parliament led the current mangkubumi to left for London in order to discuss matters regarding Samuderan full independence in the future. Consequently with help from the British, works were being done to prepare the nation to take over international responsibilities as an independent nation, something that previously was taken care of by Britain. On March 1 1960, in front of a crowd in Palembang, King Abdurrahman III announced the independence of Samudera from the United Kingdom and assumed the title of "His Majesty".

As an independent nation, Samudera committed itself to be a neutral country throughout the Cold War and continuing its previous position to focus on domestic issues. Under the so-called "Miracle cabinet", Samudera weathered the economic upheaval during the oil embargoes, and pursued a policy of autarchy in response, though the nation maintains extensive trade with the rest of the world. In 1978, the government abolished the policy of discrimination towards the Bethinan community and apologized for the practice, stating that they are a loyal member of the state.

In the 80s, major changes happen to the governance of the kingdom with the establishment of devolved administrations in Gadang, Samudranagara, and Labuan and Cempaka. Samudera enjoyed explosive economic growth throughout 1970s to the late 1990s, while at the same time the construction of numerous mega projects including the Inter-Samudera Expressway and the new federal administrative capital at Bandar Raja were completed. Throughout the 1990s, Samudera transformed itself into an extensive welfare state, while starting from the late 20th century, researches started being conducted into the potential utilization of renewable energy in order to reduce the country's emission that saw the adoption of nuclear energy, among others.

21st century
Samuderan economy made a full recovery in 2002 after it was hit by the fiscal crisis of the late 1990s. One of the consequences is the decrease of the welfare state and increasing privatization of public services and goods such as postal service, that was previously monopolized by the government.

Under the leadership of Samudera's first female mangkubumi Ratna Salim, the country saw greater participation in international affairs, abandoning its previous isolationist stance. It is a founding member of the now defunct-Council of Islamic Cooperation, as well as a member of several international organizations. Nonetheless, the country's foreign minister reiterated Samudera's neutrality in the world stage.

In 2014, the reigning monarch Iskandar II announced that the Kingdom of Samudera had renamed itself as the Crowned Federation of Samudera Darussalam, following a previously-held mass referendum. Samudera officially becomes a secular state in 2018, after the parliament ratified the constitution to include the clause proclaiming the separation of church and state.

Politics


Politics in Samudera operate under a framework laid out in the Constitution of Samudera. Written in 1928 to replace the previous constitution, it establishes a sovereign state in the form of a constitutional monarchy with a representative parliamentary system. While the monarch presides over the Parameswara Council (privy council), its role is strictly representative and ceremonial, such as the appointment and dismissal of the mangkubumi and other government ministers. Hereditary monarch King Iskandar II has been head of state since May 24 1976, following the death of his father King Abdurrahman III.

Government
The Samuderan parliament is called the Majelis. As the legislature of the country, it's one of its most powerful institutions, holding the power to pass federal laws that apply throughout the nation, as well as the power of the purse. The Majelis is also responsible for appointing and exercising control of the government and taking part in international cooperation. Bills may be initiated by the government or members of the parliament, though once they passed, the bills have to be presented before the Parameswara Council to receive royal assent in order to become law.



Administrative divisions
According to the Constitution, the country is composed of three constituent states (nagara) and several federal territories. These are divided between two regions, with two states and one federal territory on Samudera proper, and the rest, including Labuan and Cempaka, as part of overseas territories. Home rule governance has been introduced to the states as early as during the unification of Gadang and Samudranagara, though it is not adopted by the latter. Along with the rest of the federal subjects, the state is placed under direct administration of the federal government, which lead to the so called Autonomy Question.



States are typically divided into regions (wilayah), which are then subdivided into municipalities and autonomous cities. In Gadang as well as Labuan and Cempaka, state governments are led by an elected chief minister (bendara) and legislature, whose members are drawn out from local elections by convention. However, in matters of dire emergency the federal parliament may abolish the state government under the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignity, as seen in 1890 constitutional crisis of Gadang.